Grazing Przewalski Horses in Augsburg's Stadtwald (photo by Elisabeth Brandt)

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In  southern Germany's Augsburg, ice age is only a short walk away. The adjoining Königsbrunner Stadtwald

remained unchanged for thousands of years. Since 2007 visitors may even encounter archaic Przewalski horses. This light-flooded pine forest is also home to a variety of plants ranging from Mediterranean Marsh Gladiolus to rare vegetation left over from the last ice age, a veritable biodiversity hotspot. Grazing, first by wild beasts then by cattle prevented the encroachment of shrubs, thus herds of herbivores preserved a mosaic landscape of wooded areas and pastures. Unfortunately, in today’s Europe this kind of extensive farming is hardly viable, as marginal agriculture on poor soils yields only meagre profits. Sadly, this is also true for alpine landscapes where sloping grounds and stony soils hamper the use of pastures on high altitudes. Industrialised farming combined with urbanisation and demographic changes lead to depopulated landscapes all over Europe. Since 1960 the continent’s rural population shrunk by 70%. Trends were exacerbated when EU reformed her premium policy. Since 2003, farmers receive bonuses according to their floor space instead of their produce. Especially mobile shepherds lost thus vital income as they rarely own land.

Limited freedom

Sustainable land management by grazing created unique landscapes like alpine pastures or north German heathlands, now essential habitats for endangered species and tourist attractions in rural regions. Equally military areas became precious refuges for vulnerable species. Alas, many training grounds like Bavarian Tennenlohe, formerly used by the United States army and unproductive fields and pastures are no longer in use. Consequently, these spaces need some kind of weed control to keep encroaching shrubs in check. In order to prevent the overgrowing of marginal terrains the EU promotes grazing projects. A term which refers to the practise to herd unmanaged land with frugal herbivores. Apart from sheep or goats, cattle and horses are deployed. If possible wild species are rewilded, but unfortunately Auerochs and primeval wild horses have gone extinct. Luckily European Bisons survived in captivity and have been rewilded since1952. Now 34 herds of the majestic bovines roam again through Europe’s wildernesses. If wild forms are not available, resilient historical breeds like Przewalski horses, ponies or Scottish Highland Cattle are used.  Even Heckrind a kind of pseudo-Auerochs, ‘re-bred’ by mixing old breeds of domesticated cattle are put on pastures. Rewilded breeds need to be able to look after themselves, at most they will get extra food during hard winters. Thus robust herbivores graze in abandoned landscapes, a cost effective and low maintenance way to preserve precious biotopes. Plant preferences differ among species, consequently they create distinct micro-habitats, a prerequisite for high biodiversity.  Also grazing animals love to rub their itching hide at shrubs and in hard times they substitute their meagre diet by browsing bushes. This way they keep landscapes open more effectively than deer. By rolling on the ground and trampling down vegetation herbivores create small patches of open ground which become habitats and germinating pockets for many species. Plants can disperse by being eaten by herbivores, whose faeces also fertilises the soil and provides breeding ground for insects. Admittedly most rewilded herds are confined to large but fenced territories. Thus Königsbrunns’s Przewalski horses are restricted to a 27 ha area. Megafauna in unfenced habitats becomes easily a bone of contention. A case in point are eight Bisons set free 2013 in the private estate of Prince zu Sayn-Wittgenstein in the Westphalian Rothaargebirge. Since their arrival they multiplied to 25 individuals which reshaped their new home range, much to the dismay of Forest owners whose commercially managed forests border the estate. Today this rewilding project is threatened by legal actions from neighbouring landowners and surrounding communities.

Pleistocene Europe

Rewilding Europe, a foundation set up in 2011, has a more comprehensive vision for Europe’s new wastelands. Their project -called Pleistocene Rewilding- aims at the (re)creation of glacial ecosystems by introducing megafauna into deserted areas. Rewilding Europe casts about for large territories whose ecological outfit predisposes them for the rebirth of Pleistocene biospheres. Pleistocene designates the geological era which lasted till the end of the last glacial. Local agents campaigning for the conservation of the areas wildlife are another crucial prerequisite for Rewilding Europe’s involvement. The Foundation encourages conservation activists, crosslinks organisations and if necessary provides animals for rewilding. This way Rewilding Europe initiated 2015 a project in north eastern Germany’s Oder-Delta a key conservation zone and resting place or migrating birds. Peter Torkler, project manager of Rewilding Oder-Delta lays out his organisation’s philosophy: “Rewilding tries to scale back human involvement as far as possible in order to establish a natural dynamic.  Then we step back.” Today herds of European Bisons and wild horses wander through the deltas vast territory. Their 250.000 ha homerange is truly boundless as it spreads on both sides of the German-Polish border. Torkler values the engagement of Polish nature conservationists and considers polish nature “more intact”. While in Germany more finances are available for environmental protection, there is less acceptance for rewilding projects than in Poland. Critics of Rewilding Europe argue, that after 10.000 years of post-glacial cultivation there is not enough space for large animals in our densely populated nations. Torkler counters, that there will be no active release of wild animals into the Oder-Delta, instead Bisons, horses and other creatures trickle in from Poland. If a fence, recently erected and cutting through the region, will stunt wildlife-migration is yet unknown. The barrier is to prevent the immigration of wild boars infected with African swine fever. Rewilding Oder-Delta’s concept also impacts the local economy by luring visitors into the stunning but economically underdeveloped region. To promote businesses and enable them to profit from newly created nature-tourism Rewilding Europe partnered with the regional government of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern.  Similarly, the EU set up a project called Wildlife Economy (WLE) designed to invest into the economic development of poor rural regions like the Oder-Delta.

Predators

Self-regulating ecosystems need predators, as herbivores will damage forests and cause erosion if they overpopulate their habitats.  The Large Carnivore Initiative for Europe (LCIE) campaigns for the reintroduction of bears, wolves and lynxes to control large herds. LCIE sparks heated controversies as huge carnivores evoke long forgotten fears and need large territories for their survival. When, at the dawn of the new millennium, wolves returned to Germany they spread therefore fast. Twenty years later more than thousand individuals live in the Bundesrepublik, some of them wandering alone or in pairs, others established themselves permanently in 128 packs. None of them has been introduced, instead they crossed Germany’s eastern borders or the Alps. The wolves’ fast and successful reintegration into central Europe’s ecosystems demonstrate their ability to share their habitats with man. Will humans be equally versatile? Since 1992 wolves are protected by the EU’s Fauna-Flora-Habitat-Directive. Combined with the fall of the iron curtain this enabled them to reclaim their old hunting grounds all over central and western Europe. Alas, residents have yet to accept the grey hunter’s presence, if it is to stay permanently. Eastern and south eastern Europeans may serve as a role model, wolves never got extinct in their countries and citizens stayed used to them.  Further west wildlife has been controlled by hunters since wolves became extinct in the 19th century. Recently huntsmen shouldered also the monitoring of wolves, by registering their tracks and appearances. Essential information for conservationists and forestry departments. Foresters and huntsmen need to adjust their shooting quota by taking into account the numbers of deer killed by wolves. Prey gets more timorous and it becomes more difficult for hunters to detect them.  Some species like endangered mouflons are pushed further towards extinction by the reappearance of additional predators like wolves. While hunting associations welcome the return of the wolf they regard him as sufficiently established to loosen conservation directives and allow licenced killings. Their argument: Controlled hunting of wolves ensures that they stay wary of humans and keep their distance. 2020 the government of Niedersachsen decided to include wolves into the region’s hunting law. Local politicians called this a ‘signal’, albeit an inconsequential one, as under EU and federal law wolves remain strictly protected even in Niedersachsen.

Wolves among sheep

It comes as no surprise that livestock farmers are wolf-sceptics. Only 1% of German wolves’ diet consists of domesticated animals, they mostly hunt deer, mouflon and wild boars. Nonetheless the wolves’ return puts pressure on cattle holders and above all on shepherds as 89% of all utilitarian animals killed by wolves are sheep. In addition, wolves attack horses and young cattle. The latter are especially vulnerable in alpine regions, because their high-altitude pastures are hard to secure against wolves due to the rocky ground and their remoteness. Ravines may destroy electronic wolf-proof fences during the winter while trekker and biker complain about irritating obstacles in summer. To support its alpine farmers Bavaria considers to establish wolf-free zones, one more local voice contradicting EU’s FFH-directive.  The Association Wildtierschutz in Deutschland e.v. (Protection of Wildlife in Germany) objects to the complete banishment of wolves from certain areas, as young wolves in search of a new home range must be able to move freely. Counterintuitively, Romania, a country with a stable wolf-population, also hosts Europe’s third-largest population of sheep. Romania’s hard-pressed shepherds employ herding dogs to protect their livestock. Unlike collies herding dogs are huge beasts, apart from assisting shepherds in moving their flocks they deter and fight wolves. Herding dogs are expensive as each shepherd needs several of the imposing canines to protect his animals and their acquisition, training and upkeep cost several thousand Euros per year and dog. Also poorly trained dogs may prove to be a grave threat for unsuspecting tourists.

Thrown to the wolves?

Everybody heard the tale of Red riding hood and similar hair rising stories about big, bad wolves. Thus, from an early age we are infused with a fear of wolves, but how much of a threat for humans are the grey carnivores actually? To ascertain to what extent wolves injure or kill humans a Norwegian group of scientists conducted in 2002 a global survey which included contemporary and well documented historical incidents. Members of the international team came from all backgrounds and included some leading heads of the LCIE. Most wolves attacking humans were rabid, therefore the number of assaults by wolves in Europe dipped dramatically after the decline of rabies infections during the 20th century. Since 1950 wolves injured nine Europeans five of the aggressors were rabid. Sometimes wolves hurt humans if they are attacked by them for example when shepherds try to defend their flock. Only when wolves lose their instinctive fear of humans they regard them as prey and especially children may become their victims. In India where 273 children were killed from 1980 to 2000 by wolves. After the canine’s natural prey became rare, they scavenged junk yards where they came into close contact with children and got fatally habituated to them. The study concludes that wolves attack humans rarely as long as they find enough food elsewhere and don’t become accustomed to them. At the other hand big carnivores like wolves play a key part in their ecosystems dynamic, for example by controlling local wildlife. Currently forestry agencies work hard to transform European woods to in order to increase their resilience against the effects of global warming. Unfortunately, their efforts are frustrated by local wildlife, because our forests are overpopulated and young trees struggle to survive among hordes of hungry deer.  After the re-introduction of wolves into the Yellowstone Park, they increased local biodiversity by reducing herbivores, thereby overgrazed vegetation could recover.

Action Plans

Courtesy to conservation efforts and the reintroduction of large mammals, Pleistocene megafauna returnes to central and western Europe. To make this a success-story the majority of Europeans needs to embrace the re-emergence of primeval wildlife and regard rewilded landscapes as an enrichment of their regions. To this end, the European Union commissioned a team of LCIE experts and other scientists to work out a concept for the management of large predators. This panel suggests a EU-wide framework of conservation rules which are flexible enough to give regional administrations some leeway. Thus local circumstances and resident’s concerns can be taken into account. Since 2019 Germany compensates livestock holders for damages caused by wolf-attacks and pays for protective measures, fulfilling thereby an EU directive. Sadly, destruction caused by other large mammals such as Elks will not be recompensed. Four years ago Bavaria also started it's very own ‘Action Plan Wolf’ which includes a survey of the Bundesland’s districts. Based on this study Bavaria’s government will remove wolves from areas where is not feasible to protect livestock. Also in 2019, Germany’s parliament the Deutsche Bundestag decided to facilitate the killing of wolves. Bavaria’s Landwirtschaftsministerin (responsible for Bavaria’s agriculture) Michaela Kaniber asks for an EU wide assessment of the wolfe’s distribution. If the grey hunter’s population turns out to be large and stable, protective measures should be relaxed. Kaniber wants to cap the number of wolves allowed in each region in order to avoid overpopulation. Already wolves which behave odd will be watched to prevent attacks.  Conspicuous individuals may be equipped with a transmitter, scared off or even be destroyed. At the other hand the European Union wants to create a network of protected areas which are connected by safe corridors. Thus scattered populations of plants and animals can exchange genes. Animals can migrate and establish new territories. On a smaller scale wildlife crossings ensure that  isolated wildlife populations can mix despite Europe’s dense infrastructure which knifes through many natural habitats. Crucial for the re-establishment of primeval wildlife are initiatives which inform and educate residents in order to alleviate their fears and show them how to  avoid critical encounters. West-Europeans should learn from their eastern and southern neighbours, which look back on a long co-existence with large creatures like wolves, Bisons, Elks and bears. In Poland wandering Bisons are equipped with transmitters to control their movements. During winters they get additional food, this way they stay within their natural reserve. Economic programs promote local industries which profit from eco-tourism attracted by a region’s beauty and rich wildlife. Thus new possibilities will hopefully make megafauna palatable to humans, especially in environments with a rich wildlife but a poor economy.

On a frosty winter day, a herd of Przewalski Horses grazes on a clearing in Augsburg's Stadtwald. A scene which evokes stone-age cave paintings. Yet every one of them has been born in captivity and had to learn how to survive in the wild. At the same time, the horses trigger biological processes which restore some of the forests natural dynamic.